PPL · illustrated course

PPL flight performance and planning course: 12 illustrated chapters

The PPL flight performance and planning course follows the syllabus in 12 chapters: 81 key points explained in a few paragraphs, often with a diagram, what to remember and, for many, the classic exam trap. The first chapter, « Masses, Fuel and Documents », can be read in full on this page.

Read chapter 1 The 359 questions of this subject

Each chapter explains, point by point, what the questions of the bank ask, with a « Remember » box and often the classic exam trap. The first chapter is free, below and in the app; the next ones are for PPL subscribers.

1.Masses, Fuel and Documents
Free
The aeroplane's masses, the limits that must never be exceeded, the mass of fuel and the documents where the data can be found.
7 key points · 47 questions of the bank
2.Arms, moments and centre of gravity calculation
Subscribers
Calculate a moment, then the position of the centre of gravity, step by step.
6 key points · 83 questions of the bank
3.CG limits, stability and manoeuvrability
Subscribers
Why the CG must stay between a forward limit and an aft limit, and what you feel outside these limits.
6 key points · 19 questions of the bank
4.Air density, altitude and temperature
Subscribers
Why a high aerodrome or a hot day degrades all performance.
6 key points · 17 questions of the bank
5.Take-off
Subscribers
Definition of the take-off distance, effects of wind, runway, mass and flaps, margins and briefing.
9 key points · 33 questions of the bank
6.The climb
Subscribers
Maximum gradient (Vx) or maximum rate (Vy), effect of wind, flaps and turns, gradient and vertical speed.
9 key points · 25 questions of the bank
7.Lift-to-drag ratio, gliding, endurance and range
Subscribers
The lift-to-drag ratio and gliding flight, then the concepts of endurance, range and radius of action.
7 key points · 16 questions of the bank
8.Fuel and reserves
Subscribers
Regulatory reserves, fuel planning, calculation with wind, equal-time point and point of no return.
6 key points · 69 questions of the bank
9.Pitch attitude, turns and descent
Subscribers
Pitch attitude / speed / slope references, load factor, turn radius and turn rate, turning techniques and rapid descent.
6 key points · 13 questions of the bank
10.Approach and landing
Subscribers
Landing distance, approach speed at 1.3 Vs0, descent path, flaps, rain, difficult aerodromes.
10 key points · 31 questions of the bank
11.Gusts, wind gradient and illusions
Subscribers
What a gust or a wind gradient does to airspeed, and why the movement of the ground is deceptive.
4 key points · 6 questions of the bank
12.Flight preparation and pre-flight inspection
Subscribers
Pre-flight inspection, preventing failures, the flight manual and sources of information before departure.
5 key points · 8 questions of the bank

Chapter 1: Masses, Fuel and Documents

The aeroplane's masses, the limits that must never be exceeded, the mass of fuel and the documents where the data can be found.

The aeroplane's masses

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Take-off mass: empty mass + useful load, capped by the maximum mass

The mass statement adds up everything on board:

the basic empty mass (MVE): the aeroplane with its equipment, oil and unusable fuel;
the occupants (pilot and passengers);
the baggage;
the usable fuel on board.

The useful load is everything that can be added to the MVE without exceeding the maximum take-off mass (MTOW). The more fuel you carry, the less room is left for passengers and baggage: it is a trade-off.

Remember

Take-off mass = MVE + occupants + baggage + fuel ≤ MTOW.

The maximum mass is not negotiable

← Faites glisser le schéma →

Consequences of exceeding the maximum mass

The maximum take-off mass is a limitation in the flight manual. It is set for two reasons:

the strength of the structure: the certified load factors are only guaranteed at or below this mass;
the published performance (distances, climb) has only been established up to this mass.

An overweight aeroplane has a higher stall speed, longer take-off and landing distances and a degraded climb. The maximum mass must never be exceeded: not with a favourable wind, not "just this once", not for an experienced pilot, and not to carry more fuel.

Exam trap

The wrong answers suggest exceptions (headwind, experienced pilot, fuel reserve for an over-water flight, emergency on departure). At take-off, there are none.

Maximum landing mass

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Mass decreases with fuel consumption: the landing must be made below the MLW

Some aeroplanes have a maximum landing mass (MLW) lower than the maximum take-off mass: the landing gear and structure must absorb the impact of touchdown.

In flight, mass decreases as fuel is burnt. You therefore need to check the expected mass on arrival: take-off mass minus fuel burnt.

The MLW must not be exceeded, except in an emergency: if a problem requires landing again just after take-off, safety comes first. The aeroplane must then be inspected. It is not always equal to the MTOW.

Remember

MTOW: never exceeded. MLW: never exceeded except in an emergency.

Where can the data be found?

← Faites glisser le schéma →

Weighing report + flight manual + loading of the day = mass and balance statement

The mass and balance statement combines two documents and your data for the day:

the weighing report: specific to this aeroplane (registration). It gives the empty mass and its moment arm, measured at the last weighing;
the flight manual: specific to the aeroplane type. It gives the limitations (including the maximum take-off mass), the balance envelope, the arms of the loading stations and a sample calculation provided by the manufacturer;
your data: mass of occupants and baggage, quantity of fuel.

The flight log and the aircraft logbook are not used for this calculation.

Exam trap

Your aeroplane's empty mass is read from the weighing report, not from the flight manual (which only gives an example). The MVE includes oil and unusable fuel.

Fuel has mass

← Faites glisser le schéma →

Conversion from litres to kilograms using the density of AVGAS

Fuel is measured in litres, but the mass statement is done in kilograms. You need to convert using the density:

mass (kg) = volume (L) × density

The density of AVGAS 100LL is about 0.72 (often rounded to 0.7 in the exam).

Examples with 0.72:

20 L → 14.4 kg (about 14 kg);
40 L → 28.8 kg (about 30 kg);
100 L → 72 kg;
150 L → 108 kg.

A flight that burns 40 L therefore makes the aeroplane lighter by about 30 kg.

Remember

AVGAS 100LL: density ≈ 0.72 (≈ 0.7). Mass = litres × 0.72.

Exam trap

Wrong answers often reuse the number of litres as it is (density 1) or multiply it by 0.4. Check the order of magnitude: the mass is always a little less than three quarters of the volume.

US gallons

← Faites glisser le schéma →

One US gallon is about 3.785 litres

American flight manuals express fuel in US gallons (USG):

1 USG ≈ 3.785 litres

to convert litres to gallons, divide by 3.785;
to convert gallons to litres, multiply by 3.785.

Example: 57 L ÷ 3.785 ≈ 15 USG. Conversely, a 40 USG tank holds about 151 L, or about 109 kg of AVGAS.

Do not confuse it with the imperial gallon (about 4.55 L), which is little used in light aviation.

Remember

1 USG = 3.785 L.

Worked example: an overloaded aeroplane

← Faites glisser le schéma →

Calculating the overload and what must be offloaded

Given: empty mass 1,000 kg; pilot and 3 passengers of 80 kg each; 150 L of fuel (density 0.7); maximum take-off mass 1,338 kg.

1. Occupants: 4 × 80 = 320 kg.

2. Fuel: 150 × 0.7 = 105 kg.

3. Total: 1,000 + 320 + 105 = 1,425 kg.

4. Excess: 1,425 − 1,338 = 87 kg.

At least 87 kg must be removed. Removing only one passenger (80 kg) is not enough, and neither is removing 80 L of fuel (56 kg). You need one passenger + 10 L (7 kg): 80 + 7 = 87 kg. Removing 15 L along with the passenger also works (you end up slightly below the limit).

Exam trap

"At a minimum": look for the smallest combination that covers the whole excess. If "10 L + 1 passenger" is not offered, "15 L + 1 passenger" is the right answer.

The course goes on with chapter 2, « Arms, moments and centre of gravity calculation ». It is read in the Course tab of the app with a PPL subscription, and each chapter ends with the questions of the bank about it. See pricing

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The other PPL courses

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Contents

Chapter 1: Masses, Fuel and Documents

The aeroplane's masses

The maximum mass is not negotiable

Maximum landing mass

Where can the data be found?

Fuel has mass

US gallons

Worked example: an overloaded aeroplane

How ForAllPilots trains you

The other PPL courses